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Arabs of the Caucasus and Central Asia

In 1728, a Russian officer described a group of Sunni Arab nomads who populated the Caspian shores of Mughan (in present-day Azerbaijan) and spoke a mixed Turkic-Arabic language.[25] It is believed that these groups migrated to the Caucasus in the 16th century.[26] The 1888 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica also mentioned a certain number of Arabs populating the Baku Governorate of the Russian Empire.[27] They retained an Arabic dialect at least into the mid-19th century,[28] but since then have fully assimilated with the neighbouring Azeris and Tats. Today in Azerbaijan alone, there are nearly 30 settlements still holding the name Arab (e.g. Arabgadim, Arabojaghy, Arab-Yengija, etc.). From the time of the Arab conquest of the Caucasus, continuous small-scale Arab migration from various parts of the Arabic-speaking world was observed in Dagestan influencing and shaping the culture of the local peoples. Up until the mid-20th century, there were still individuals in Dagestan who claimed Arabic to be their native language, with the majority of them living in the village of Darvag to the north-west of Derbent. The latest of these accounts dates to the 1930s.[26] Most Arab communities in southern Dagestan underwent linguistic Turkicisation, thus nowadays Darvag is a majority-Azeri village.[29][30] According to the History of Ibn Khaldun, the Arabs that were once in Central Asia have been either killed or have fled the Tatar invasion of the region, leaving only the locals .[31] However, today many people in Central Asia identify as Arabs. Most Arabs of Central Asia are fully integrated into local populations, and sometimes call themselves the same as locals (e.g. Tajiks, Uzbeks) but they use special titles to show their Arabic origin such as Sayyid, Khoja or Siddiqui.[32] Iranian Arab communities are also found in Khorasan Province.

Banu Fahr in North Africa, 670AD

Uqbah Ibn Naafi' and his forces (Banu Fahr) subdued Kusayla (a Berber chief) after the first Berber apostacy in the Aures Mountain region in modern day Algeria. This led to many bloody battles between the Arab Banu Fahr and the Apostates of the region. Uqbah Ibn Naafi' the chief of the Muslim forces was slain during these battles and buried in what will later be known as the city of Sidi Uqbah in the province of Biskra,Algeria. Uqbah Ibn Naafi', a companion of Muhammad, The Prophet of Islam and the Banu Fahr build the city of Qayrawan in modern day Tunisia and the city of Uqbah ibn Naafi' in modern day Algeria

Banu Hashim (

Idris I, fell into a quarrel with the Abbasids and fled Egypt for the Maghreb. With the support of the Berber of the Region they established the Idrisid dynasty which was located in modern day Morocco and Algeria.

Banu Hassan Mauritania 1644–1674AD

The Banu Maqil is a Yemeni nomadic tribe that settled in Tunisia in the 13th century. The Banu Hassan a Maqil branch moved into the Sanhaja region in whats today the Western Sahara and Mauritania, they fought a thirty years war on the side of the Lamtuna Arabized Berbers who claimed Himyarite ancestry (from the early Islamic invasions) defeating the Sanhaja berbers and Arabizing Mauritania.

Banu Hilal and Banu Muqal (Banu Hashim) in North Africa, 1046AD

The Banu Hilal was a populous Arab tribal confederation, organized by the Fatimids. They struck in Libya, reducing the Zenata Berbers (a clan that claimed Yemeni ancestry from pre-Islamic periods) and the Sanhaja berber confederation to small coastal towns. The Banu Hilal, Banu Muqal, Banu Jashm and other smaller tribes eventually Settled in modern Morocco and Algeria.

Banu Kanz Nubia/Sudan, 11th-14th century

A branch of the Rabi'ah tribe settled in north Sudan and slowly Arabized the Makurian kingdom in modern Sudan until 1315 AD when the Banu Kanz inherited the kingdom of Makuria and paved the way for the Arabization of the Sudan, that was completed by the arrival of the Ja'Alin and Juhayna Arab tribes.

Banu Sulaym in North Africa, 1049AD

The Banu Sulyam is another Bedouin tribal confederation from Nejd which followed through the trials of Banu Hilal and helped them defeat the Zirids in the Battle of Gabis in 1052 AD, and finally took Kairuan in 1057 Ad. The Banu Sulaym mainly settled and completely Arabized Libya.

Banu Umayya of Andalus/Cordoba in North Africa, 1031AD

The Umayyad Dynasty eventually fell after much infighting and mismanagement left them weak to invading European forces from France. This led to the wholesale murder, expulsion, and destruction of both the Muslim Arabs and Non-Arabs as well as much of the monuments and literature which they left behind. The Banu Umayya clan then fled with the rest of the Muslims to the Maghreb region.

Banu Umayya of Damascus in the Levant & North Africa, 661AD

The Umayyid Caliphs starting with Mu'awiyah Ibn Abi Sufyaan were the first Arab force to conquer the North African region, however most of them where in Damascus (The Levant) at this time and not in North Africa. It is not until their removal from Damascus by the Abbasid Caliphs will they enter Spain/Andalus and then North Africa after their expulsion from Spain/Andalus.

Description

Arabic, Modern South Arabian[7][8] Predominantly Islam; largest minority: Christianity; other religions An Arab (Arabic: عربي‎, ʿarabi) is a person who identifies as such on ethnic, linguistic or cultural grounds.[9][10] The plural form, Arabs (العرب al-ʿarab), refers to the ethnocultural group at large. Though the Arabic language is older, Arabic culture was first spread in the Middle East beginning in the 2nd century as culturally Arab Christians such as the Ghassanids, Lakhmids and Banu Judham began migrating into the Syrian Desert and the Levant.[11][12] The Arabic language gained greater prominence with the rise of Islam in the 7th century CE as the language of the Qur'an, and Arabic language and culture were more widely disseminated as a result of early Islamic expansion.[13]

Early Islamic period

Muslims of Medina referred to the nomadic tribes of the deserts as the A'raab, and considered themselves sedentary, but were aware of their close racial bonds. The term "A'raab' mirrors the term Assyrians used to describe the closely related nomads they defeated in Syria. The Qur'an does not use the word ʿarab, only the nisba adjective ʿarabiy. The Qur'an calls itself ʿarabiy, "Arabic", and Mubin, "clear". The two qualities are connected for example in ayat 43.2-3, "By the clear Book: We have made it an Arabic recitation in order that you may understand". The Qur'an became regarded as the prime example of the al-ʿarabiyya, the language of the Arabs. The term ʾiʿrāb has the same root and refers to a particularly clear and correct mode of speech. The plural noun ʾaʿrāb refers to the Bedouin tribes of the desert who resisted Muhammad, for example in ayat 9.97, alʾaʿrābu ʾašaddu kufrān wa nifāqān "the Bedouin are the worst in disbelief and hypocrisy". Based on this, in early Islamic terminology, ʿarabiy referred to the language, and ʾaʿrāb to the Arab Bedouins, carrying a negative connotation due to the Qur'anic verdict just cited. But after the Islamic conquest of the 8th century, the language of the nomadic Arabs became regarded as the most pure by the grammarians following Abi Ishaq, and the term kalam al-ʿArab, "language of the Arabs", denoted the uncontaminated language of the Bedouins.

Etymology

"Arab" is defined independently of religious identity, and pre-dates the rise of Islam, with historically attested Arab Christian kingdoms and Arab Jews. The earliest documented use of the word "Arab" as defining a group of people dates from the 9th century BCE.[14] Islamized but non-Arabized peoples, and therefore the majority of the world's Muslims, do not form part of the Arab World but comprise what is the geographically larger and diverse Muslim World. In the modern era, defining who is an Arab is done on the grounds of one or more of the following three criteria: * Genealogical: someone who can trace his or her ancestry to the tribes of Arabia - the original inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula - and the Syrian Desert. This definition covers fewer self-identified Arabs than not, and was the definition used in medieval times, for example by Ibn Khaldun. * Linguistic: someone whose first language, and by extension cultural expression, is Arabic, including any of its varieties. This definition covers more than 250 million people. Certain groups that fulfill this criterion reject this definition on the basis of genealogy, such an example may be seen in the identity of many Egyptians.[15][16] * Political: in the modern nationalist era, any person who is a citizen of a country where Arabic is either the national language or one of the official languages, and/or a citizen of a country which may simply be a member of the Arab League (thereby having Arabic as an official government language, even if not used by the majority of the population). This definition would cover over 300 million people. It may be the most contested definition as it is the most simplistic one. It would exclude the entire Arab diaspora, but include not only those genealogically Arabs (Gulf Arabs and others, such as Bedouins, where they may exist) and those Arabized-Arab-identified, but would also include Arabized non-Arab-identified groups (including many Lebanese and many Egyptians, both Christians and Muslims) and even non-Arabized ethnic minorities which have remained non-Arabic-speaking (such as the Berbers in Morocco, Kurds in Iraq, or the Somali majority of Arab League member Somalia). The relative importance of these three factors is estimated differently by different groups and frequently disputed. Some combine aspects of each definition, as done by Habib Hassan Touma,[17] who defines an Arab "in the modern sense of the word", as "one who is a national of an Arab state, has command of the Arabic language, and possesses a fundamental knowledge of Arab tradition, that is, of the manners, customs, and political and social systems of the culture." Most people who consider themselves Arab do so based on the overlap of the political and linguistic definitions. Few people consider themselves Arab based on the political definition without the linguistic one; thus few Kurds and Berbers identify as Arab. But some do, for instance some Berbers also consider themselves Arab (v. e.g. Gellner, Ernest and Micaud, Charles, Eds. Arabs and Berbers: from tribe to nation in North Africa. Lexington: Lexington Books, 1972). Some religious minorities within the Middle East and North Africa who have Arabic or any of its varieties as their primary community language, such as Egyptian Copts, may not identify as Arabs. The Arab League at its formation in 1946 defined Arab as "a person whose language is Arabic, who lives in an Arabic speaking country, who is in sympathy with the aspirations of the Arabic speaking peoples". The relation of ʿarab and ʾaʿrāb is complicated further by the notion of "lost Arabs" al-ʿArab al-ba'ida mentioned in the Qur'an as punished for their disbelief. All contemporary Arabs were considered as descended from two ancestors, Qahtan and Adnan. Versteegh (1997) is uncertain whether to ascribe this distinction to the memory of a real difference of origin of the two groups, but it is certain that the difference was strongly felt in early Islamic times. Even in Islamic Spain there was enmity between the Qays of the northern and the Kalb of the southern group. The so-called Himyarite language described by Al-Hamdani (died 946) appears to be a special case of language contact between the two groups, an originally north Arabic dialect spoken in the south, and influenced by Old South Arabian. During the Muslim conquests of the seventh and eighth centuries, the Arabs forged an Arab Empire (under the Rashidun and Umayyads, and later the Abbasids) whose borders touched southern France in the west, China in the east, Asia Minor in the north, and the Sudan in the south. This was one of the largest land empires in history. In much of this area, the Arabs spread Islam and the Arabic language (the language of the Qur'an) through conversion and cultural assimilation. Many groups became known as "Arabs" through this process of Arabization rather than through descent. Thus, over time, the term Arab came to carry a broader meaning than the original ethnic term: cultural Arab vs. ethnic Arab. Arab nationalism declares that Arabs are united in a shared history, culture and language. A related ideology, Pan-Arabism, calls for all Arab lands to be united as one state. Arab nationalism has often competed for existence with regional nationalism in the Middle East, such as Lebanese and Egyptian.

Levant and Iraq

The arrival of Islam united many tribes in Arabia, who then moved northwards to conquer the Levant and Iraq. In 661, and throughout the Caliphate's rule by the Ummayad dynasty, Damascus was established as the Muslim capital. In these newly acquired territories, Arabs comprised the ruling military elite and as such, enjoyed special privileges. They were proud of their Arab ancestry and sponsored the poetry and culture of pre-Islamic Arabia whilst diffusing with Levantine and Iraqi culture. They established garrison towns at Ramla, ar-Raqqah, Basra, Kufa, Mosul and Samarra, all of which developed into major cities.[21] Caliph Abd al-Malik established Arabic as the Caliphate's official language in 686. This reform greatly influenced the conquered non-Arab peoples and fueled the Arabization of the region. However, the Arabs' higher status among non-Arab Muslim converts and the latter's obligation to pay heavy taxes caused resentment. Caliph Umar II strove to resolve the conflict when he came to power in 717. He rectified the situation, demanding that all Muslims be treated as equals, but his intended reforms did not take effect as he died after only three years of rule. By now, discontent with the Umayyads swept the region and an uprising occurred in which the Abbasids came to power and moved the capital to Baghdad. The Abbasids were also Arabs (descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas), but unlike the Ummayads, they had the support of non-Arab Islamic groups.[21] Through the adoption of the Arabic language and Islam, the Levantine and Iraqi populations became Arabized.

Medieval

Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddima distinguishes between sedentary Muslims who used to be nomadic Arabs and the Bedouin nomadic Arabs of the desert. He used the term "formerly-nomadic" Arabs and refers to sedentary Muslims by the region or city they lived in, as in Egyptians, Spaniards and Yemenis. [22] The Christians of Italy and the Crusaders preferred the term Saracens for all the Arabs and Muslims of that time. [23] The Christians of Iberia used the term Moor to describe all the Arabs and Muslims of that time.[24]

North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula

The Phoenicians and later the Carthaginians dominated North African and Iberian shores for more than 8 centuries until they were suppressed by the Romans and the later Vandal invasion. Inland, the nomadic Berbers allied with Arab Muslims in invading Spain. The Arabs mainly settled the old Phoenician and Carthagenian towns, while the Berbers remained dominant inland. Inland north Africa remained partly Arab until the 11th century, whereas the Iberian Peninsula, particularly its southern part, remained heavily Arab, until the expulsion of the Moriscos in the 17th century.

Photo Gallery

Arabic dresses Ghassanids horse mosaic, 700 AD Bedouin woman Bedouin warrior Bedouin costume and Arabian horse Traditional living room quarter in Arabic village Newly Married Arabian Bedouin couple, 1900 Arab mountain militia fighting against the British in 1936 Bedouin Sheikh Arabesque from Byzantine times, Ghassanids Arabic calligraphy Mosaic art (Arabesque) in Jerusalem Arabs against the British, 1936

Population

The top 15 countries with the largest Arab populations outside the "Pan-Arab states" or the Arab world of the Middle East and North Africa by rankings. Often the main Arabic ethnic-national groups are Syrians and Lebanese, but can include other Arab nationalities. * Brazil = 6 to 8 million, but can exceed 10 million. * Argentina = 3.5 million[18] * Iran = 1.2 to 1.8 million (an Shi'ite Arab minority in Khuzestan). * United States = 1 to 2 million (the most numerous are Lebanese and Syrian descent). * Mexico = at 1 million. * Israel = estimated at 1 to 1.5 million Arabs or of Arab descent (see Palestinians for more information).[citation needed] * United Kingdom = 500,000 (estimated). * Turkey = 800,000 to 1.2 million. * Chile = 600 to 800,000 (esp. Palestinian Chileans). * France = 4-6 million. (estimated). * Australia = 400 to 500,000 (a large number are Lebanese). * Canada = 300 to 500,000. * Germany = 300 to 400,000. * Pakistan = 200 to 300,000. * Ecuador = 200,000. 24 other nations with above 100,000 Arabs: Haiti, Sierra Leone, Cote d'Ivoire, Liberia, Senegal, Nigeria, Venezuela, Colombia, Uruguay, New Zealand, Denmark, Cyprus, Spain, Bulgaria, Ghana, Switzerland, Greece, Jamaica, The Philippines, Dominician Republic, Trinidad & Tobago, Sweden, Honduras and Russia. And 100 more nations with over 10,000 Arabs. The global presence of Arab diasporas is significant to the development and contributions of the Arab culture in the world, from the Islamic religion to the economic well-being of several nations, and the contributions of arts and sciences by the Arabic peoples in the last millennia in Europe, Africa and Asia.

Pre-Arabic Near East

Early Semitic peoples from the Ancient Near East, such as the Arameans, Akkadians and Canaanites, built civilizations in Mesopotamia and the Levant; genetically, they often interlapped and mixed.[19] Slowly, however, they lost their political domination of the Near East due to internal turmoil and attacks by non-Semitic peoples. Although the Semites eventually lost political control of the Middle East to the Persian Empire, the Aramaic language remained the lingua Franca of Mesopotamia and the Levant. Aramaic itself was replaced by Greek as the Middle East's prestige language following the conquest of Alexander the Great. The first written attestation of the ethnonym "Arab" occurs in an Assyrian inscription of 853 BCE, where Shalmaneser III lists a King Gindibu of mâtu arbâi (Arab land) as among the people he defeated at the Battle of Karkar. Some of the names given in these texts are Aramaic, while others are the first attestations of Proto-Arabic dialects. In fact several different ethnonyms are found in Assyrian texts that are conventionally translated "Arab": Arabi, Arubu, Aribi and Urbi. The Hebrew Bible occasionally refers to Arvi peoples (or variants thereof), translated as "Arab" or "Arabian." The scope of the term at that early stage is unclear, but it seems to have referred to various desert-dwelling Semitic tribes in the Syrian Desert and Arabia. Proto-Arabic, or Ancient North Arabian, texts give a clearer picture of the Arabs' emergence. The earliest are written in variants of epigraphic south Arabian musnad script, including the 8th century BCE Hasaean inscriptions of eastern Saudi Arabia, the 6th century BCE Lihyanite texts of southeastern Saudi Arabia and the Thamudic texts found throughout Arabia and the Sinai (not in reality connected with Thamud). The Nabataeans were nomadic newcomers[citation needed] who moved into territory vacated by the Edomites -- Semites who settled the region centuries before them. Their early inscriptions were in Aramaic, but gradually switched to Arabic, and since they had writing, it was they who made the first inscriptions in Arabic. The Nabataean Alphabet was adopted by Arabs to the south, and evolved into modern Arabic script around the 4th century. This is attested by Safaitic inscriptions (beginning in the 1st century BCE) and the many Arabic personal names in Nabataean inscriptions. From about the 2nd century BCE, a few inscriptions from Qaryat al-Faw (near Sulayyil) reveal a dialect which is no longer considered "proto-Arabic", but pre-classical Arabic.

Religions

Arab Muslims are generally Sunni, Shia, Ismaili and Druze. The self-identified Arab Christians generally follow Eastern Churches such as the Greek Orthodox and Greek Catholic churches and the Maronite church.[33] The Greek Catholic churches and Maronite church are under the Pope of Rome, and a part of the larger worldwide Catholic Church. Before the coming of Islam, most Arabs followed a religion with a number of deities, including Hubal,[34] Wadd,[35] Allāt,[36] Manat, [37] and Uzza.[38] A few individuals, the hanifs, had apparently rejected polytheism in favor of monotheism unaffiliated with any particular religion. Some tribes had converted to Christianity or Judaism. The most prominent Arab Christian kingdoms were the Ghassanid and Lakhmid kingdoms.[39] When the Himyarite king converted to Judaism in the late 4th century,[40] the elites of the other prominent Arab kingdom, the Kindites, being Himyirite vassals, apparently also converted (at least partly). With the expansion of Islam, polytheistic Arabs were rapidly Islamized, and polytheistic traditions gradually disappeared.[41][42] Today, Sunni Islam dominates in most areas, overwhelmingly so in North Africa. Shia Islam is dominant in southern Iraq, Bahrain and Lebanon. Substantial Shi'a populations exist in Saudi Arabia,[43] Kuwait, northern Syria, the al-Batinah region in Oman, and in northern Yemen. The Druze community, concentrated in the Levant, follow a faith that was originally an offshoot of Ismaili Shia Islam,[44] and are also Arab. Christians make up 5.5% of the population of the Near East.[45] In Lebanon they number about 39% of the population although not all Lebanese Christians identify as Arabs.[46] In Syria, Christians make up 16% of the population.[47] In Palestine before the creation of Israel estimates ranged as high as 25%, but is now 3.8% due largely to the 1948 Palestinian exodus. In West Bank and in Gaza, Arab Christians make up 8% and 0.8% of the populations, respectively.[48][49] In Israel, Arab Christians constitute 1.7% (roughly 9% of the Palestinian Arab population).[50] Arab Christians make up 6% of the population of Jordan.[51] Most North and South American Arabs are Christian,[52] as are about half of Arabs in Australia who come particularly from Lebanon, Syria, and the Palestinian territories. Jews from Arab countries – mainly Mizrahi Jews and Yemenite Jews – are today usually not categorised as Arab. Sociologist Philip Mendes asserts that before the anti-Jewish actions of the 1930s and 1940s, overall Iraqi Jews "viewed themselves as Arabs of the Jewish faith, rather than as a separate race or nationality".[53] Prior to the emergence of the term Mizrahi, the term "Arab Jews" (Yehudim ‘Áravim, יהודים ערבים) was sometimes used to describe Jews of the Arab world. The term is rarely used today. The few remaining Jews in the Arab countries reside mostly in Morocco and Tunisia. From the late 1940s to the early 1960s, following the creation of the state of Israel, most of these Jews left or were expelled from their countries of birth and are now mostly concentrated in Israel. Some immigrated to France, where they form the largest Jewish community, outnumbering European Jews, but relatively few to the United States. See Jewish exodus from Arab lands.

See also

* Arabia * Umayyad * Abbasid * Lakhmids * Tanukhids * Arab Nationalism * Arab world * Arab Jews * Arab Empire * Arab League * Anti-Arabism * Pan-Arabism * Pan-Arab colors * Rashidun * Women in Arab societies * Human rights in Saudi Arabia * Arabian mythology * Adnani Arabs * Qahtani Arabs * Nabataeans * Bedouin * Semitic * Ishmaelites * Saracens * Ancient Arabs * Midianites * Arabic alphabet * Arabic culture * Arabic language * Arabic literature * Arabic music * Arabic poetry * Arab cinema * Arab cuisine * Varieties of Arabic * History of the Arabs * Arab diaspora * Middle East * North Africa * Philip the Arab * Arab Christians * Arab American * Chaush (Yemenis in South India) * Arab Brazilian * Arab British * Arab Canadian * Arab Mexican * Arab Singaporean * Arabs in Turkey * Arab citizens of Israel * Iranian Arabs * Negev bedouins * Arab Haitian

Sources

* Touma, Habib Hassan. The Music of the Arabs. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus P, 1996. ISBN 0-931340-88-8. * Lipinski, Edward. Semitic Languages: Outlines of a Comparative Grammar, 2nd ed., Orientalia Lovanensia Analecta: Leuven 2001 * Kees Versteegh, The Arabic Language, Edinburgh University Press (1997)[54] * The Catholic Encyclopedia, Robert Appleton Company, 1907, Online Edition, K. Night 2003: article Arabia * https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/LE.html * History of Arabic language, Jelsoft Enterprises Ltd.[55]. Retrieved Feb.17, 2006 * The Arabic language, National Institute for Technology and Liberal Education web page (2006)[54]. Retrieved June 14, 2006. * Ankerl, Guy (2000) [2000]. Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal research. Vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.  * Hooker, Richard. "Pre-Islamic Arabic Culture." WSU Web Site. 6 June 1999. Washington State University. * Owen, Roger. "State Power and Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East 3rd Ed" Page 57 ISBN 0-415-29714-1

Tribal genealogy

Medieval Arab genealogists divided Arabs into three groups: * "Ancient Arabs", tribes that had vanished or been destroyed, such as 'Ad and Thamud, often mentioned in the Qur'an as examples of God's power to destroy wicked peoples. * "Pure Arabs" of South Arabia, descending from Qahtan. The Qahtanites (Qahtanis) are said to have migrated the land of Yemen following the destruction of the Ma'rib Dam (sadd Ma'rib). * The "Arabized Arabs" (musta`ribah) of center and North Arabia, descending from Ishmael son of Abraham. The Book of Jubilees claims that the The sons of Ishmael intermingled with the 6 sons of Keturah from Abraham And was called Arabs and Ishmaelites: Book of Jubilees 20:13 And Ishmael and his sons, and the sons of Keturah and their sons, went together and dwelt from Paran to the entering in of Babylon in all the land which is towards the East facing the desert. And these mingled with each other, and their name was called Arabs, and Ishmaelites.

Yemeni migrations to the North

In Sassanid times, Arabia Petraea was a border province between the Roman and Persian empires[citation needed], and from the early centuries AD was increasingly affected by Arab influence, notably with the Ghassanids migrating north from the 3rd century. The Ghassanids,Lakhmids and Kindites were the last major migration of non-Muslims out of Yemen to the north. * The Ghassanids revived the Semitic presence in the then Hellenized Syria. They mainly settled in the Hauran region and spread to modern Lebanon, Palestine and Jordan. The Ghassanids held Syria until the expansion of Islam. Greeks and Romans referred to all the nomadic population of the desert in the Near East as Arabi. The Romans called Yemen "Arabia Felix"[20]. The Romans called the vassal nomadic states within the Roman Empire "Arabia Petraea" after the city of Petra, and called unconquered deserts bordering the empire to the south and east Arabia Magna. * The Lakhmids settled the mid Tigris region around their capital Al-hira they ended up allying with the Sassanid against the Ghassanids and the Byzantine Empire. The Lakhmids contested control of the Central Arabian tribes with the Kindites with the Lakhmids eventually destroying Kinda in 540 after the fall of their main ally Himyar. The Sassanids dissolved the Lakhmid kingdom in 602. * The Kindites migrated from Yemen along with the Ghassanids and Lakhmids, but were turned back in Bahrain by the Abdul Qais Rabi'a tribe. They returned to Yemen and allied themselves with the Himyarites who installed them as a vassal kingdom that ruled Central Arbia from Qaryah dhat Kahl (the present-day Qaryat al-Faw) in Central Arabia. They ruled much of the Northern/Central Arabian peninsula until the fall of the Himyarites in 525AD.

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SeekingArrangement.com also caters to those looking for Millionaire dating. However, it’s important to note that one does not need to be a millionaire to be a sugar daddy. One does have to be wealthy man, rich man, successful man, generous man, upscale man, or established man. Of course, being a millionaire or a billionaire doesn’t hurt either, since money can help with the process of romance. Our website boasts hundreds of wealthy men, successful men, generous men, upscale men, established men, and men of substance who are seriously seeking a mutually beneficial arrangement in Arab, Alabama, United States. If you are looking to meet a millionaire, or singles who are likely to become a millionaire or billionaire, you may want to try using SeekingMillionaire.com, where wealthy or beautiful singles meet each other. However, if you are only interested in a mutually beneficial relationship with a millionaire, you may want to try SeekingArrangement.com instead of a millionaire dating, millionaire personal, millionaire romance, millionaire love, millionaire matchmaker, millionaire match, millionaire introduction, or millionaire meet services. Millionaire matchmakers, such as MillionaireClub123.com or executive matchmaker, charge upwards of $20,000 and are overpriced. For $49.95, you can meet quality singles and millionaires without the use of such upscale matchmaking services with the same, if not better results. Be careful of millionaire dating websites that claim to be sugar daddy dating websites, such as Establishedmen.com, MillionaireMatch.com, WealthyMen.com, or MillionaireMate.com – these millionaire dating websites are unsure what niche they represent. A millionaire dating website is not a sugar daddy dating website. They are very different. Millionaire dating websites are only for singles and are for those seeking serious relationships. Sugar daddy dating websites on the other hand cater to both singles and married individuals seeking mutually beneficial / no strings attached arrangements. So what does it take to be classified a millionaire, or someone who is an established single, successful single, upscale single, executive single, wealthy single, or rich single? Obviously, wealth can be subjective just as beauty can be. However, if you are someone who has over $500k in net worth or if you make over $100k a year in annual income, it is fair to suggest that you are wealthy or have the pretty good chance of becoming a millionaire. Another qualification is if you are successful in your career and hold an executive position making over one hundred thousand dollars a year, including Chief Executive Officer (CEO), Chief Financial Officer (CFO), Chief Information Officer (CIO), Chief Investment Officer (CIO), Chief Marketing Officer (CMO), President, Vice President, or General Manager. If you belong to such a group, the internet and more specifically SeekingArrangement.com and SeekingMillionaire.com, offer you an unprecedented opportunity to meet and date gorgeous, beautiful, sexy, cute, attractive, sensual, hot or pretty singles, including but not limited to actors, actresses, models, aspiring models, aspiring actresses, girls next door, playboy playmates, penthouse playmates, dancers, adult entertainers, adult actresses, adult movie stars, artists, college freshmen, college sophomores, college juniors, college seniors or recent high school graduates. ;

NSA is short for No Strings Attached, and usually referring to no strings attached relationships or no strings attached dating (NSA dating). Typically when someone says he or she is looking for a NSA relationship or NSA arrangement, that usually means they are not ready for commitment, to be tied down, and hence the relationship would likely not end up being serious or a marriage. What no strings attached does not refer to are: No Strings Attached ('N Sync album), an album by boy band 'N Sync; No Strings Attached (Meat Puppets album), a 1990 compilation CD by the Meat Puppets; No Strings Attached (Jassi Sidhu album); No Strings Attached, a comedy tour by comedian Carlos Mencia. NSA dating or no strings attached dating is one of the main focus of SeekingArrangement.com, and our website hosts more members seeking NSA relationships in Arab, Alabama, United States than any other online dating websites. Other commonly used terms in Sugar dating are - GFE which is short for Girl Friend Experience, and BFE which is short of Boy Friend Experience. While mostly an abbreviation used by Escorts and Johns, the term is also often used by those searching for intimate sugar daddy and sugar baby relationships. Usually those looking for GFE dating are seeking NSA dating, and likewise those looking for BFE dating are seeking NSA relationships. GFE personals, BFE personals or NSA personals is one of the main focus of SeekingArrangement.com It appears that GFE can be an acronym or abbreviation for many different things. GFE can mean Good Faith Estimate, Government-Furnished Equipment, Grantmakers for Education, Graphical Forecast Editor, Google Front End (Google web server), Generic Front End, Gas Free Engineer, Group Format Error, Gesellschaft für Forschung und Entwicklung (German), Good for Everything, Groningen Fitness Test for the Elderly, General Fund Exempt, Go Fat Early, Grooming Fabric Edge. However, on SeekingArrangement, GFE means Girl Friend Experience. The "girlfriend experience" generally involves more personal interaction than a traditional call girl or escort offers. Advertising a "girlfriend experience" is sometimes used by call girls to promote business. Please note that SeekingArrangement.com does not permit prostitutes or escorts from using our website, hence our definition of GFE and BFE is different. Here GFE and BFE means NSA – or no strings attached relationships. Something similar to this is shown in the Charles Bronson film, The Mechanic and the Burt Reynolds film, Sharky's Machine. A corresponding term (used to describe a client who acts as a lover instead of merely a participant in a commercial transaction) is "BFE" or "boyfriend experience." "PSE" or Porn Star Experience is where the service provider will sometimes allow photos or video to be taken or to act like a porn star for a client and the sex acts are un-covered (no condom). ;

SeekingArrangement.com is the largest sugar daddy and sugar baby discreet dating website and discreet personals in Arab, Alabama, United States. Discreet dating, discreet encounters, discreet affairs, discreet arrangement, discreet love, discreet relationship, discreet romance, or discreet girlfriend, are all secretive dating where participants are careful to avoid embarrassment since they are dealing with private matters requiring secrecy. The market for discreet dating is large, in fact there are services such as Alibi Network that is a full service discreet agency providing alibis and excuses for absences. In fact they advertise “Whether you are involved in discreet affairs or you are married and looking to spice up your relationship by spending time with your partner away from the everyday life, we have a solution for you.” Discreet dating may also be referred to as confidential dating, confidential relationship, confidential affairs, confidential romance, confidential mistress or confidential girlfriend. To be involved in discreet dating, one has to be extremely secret about it. Meeting in another small town; getting separate rooms in a large hotel; not letting on you know the person if you are at same event they are. In other words, short of having the odd "squeak between the sheets" you don't know each other out in public or at the workplace. Discreet dating sometimes occurs at the workplace when two people who are not supposed to get involved romantically did so. For example, in the case of an affair between a professor and his student, or a love affair between a boss and his secretary, participants need to keep their dating discreet so no one finds out. Check out the Seeking Arrangement Blog for more discussion on issues related to discreet dating in Arab, Alabama, United States. Advice you will find include the pros and cons of discreet arrangements, how to keep discreet relationships working, how to end discreet affairs, and how to make discreet dating work when one or both are married. One of the biggest problems with most discreet dating websites is that they do not screen for scammers or spammers, and as a result, users are often bombarded with spam from girls seeking customers for their discreet chat, or discreet webcam services. While adult chat or adult webcam services may be fun, it is not the type of discreet dating or discreet relationships most people are looking for. As such, we suggest trying SeekingArrangement.com, where all members are carefully screened, and hence you will always be meeting someone who is likeminded in their search for a discreet relationship, discreet affair, discreet encounter, or discreet adventure. ;

Married dating in Arab, Alabama, United States. About 40-50% of the sugar daddies on SeekingArrangement.com are married but looking, or are married seeking an extra-marital affair or a mistress lover. Unlike other married dating websites such as AshleyMadison.com or Philanders.com or MarriedButLooking.com, SeekingArrangement.com does not exclusively cater to married dating or cheating arrangements. But, since an arranged relationship does sometime involve married people, it’s not surprising many who are married but looking use our website in search of their perfect discreet affair. Our founder is often asked by the Media if he supports extramarital affairs – his answer is that while he does not make any moral judgments, he notes that married dating isn’t for everyone. However, that said, SeekingArrangement.com does have 50-60% of single, divorced or widowed sugar daddies participating. It is also important to note that approximately 10-15% of members on a regular dating site, such as PlentyofFish.com or Match.com are in fact married and looking, except they lie about their real married status. An affair is sometimes referred as a form of nonmonogamy, infidelity or adultery. Where an affair lacks both overt and covert sexual behavior and yet exhibits intense or enduring emotional intimacy it may be referred to as an emotional affair, platonic love, or a romantic friendship. Other terms that describes an affair, include discreet affair, private affair, office affair or a secret affair. An affair also may be referred to as sex with the opposite sex dramatically. Affair may also describe part of an agreement of an open marriage, such as swinging, which sanctions some forms of extramarital sex and and not others. When one of the non-sanctioned affairs occurs it is described as infidelity and often experienced as a betrayal both of trust and integrity. Also: emotional affair, infidelity, adultery, cheating, mistress (lover), friendship, platonic love, or romantic friendship. We have interviewed many married sugar daddies and married sugar babies, as to why they seek a married affair. The average married sugar daddy tells us he is bored, or that sexual passion no longer exist in his marriage, that having an extramarital affair or engaging in married dating is the only way he is going to be able to stay with his wife. Yet, other married sugar daddy claims having a discreet affair helps add spice to his married life, so all in all, married dating helps him stay in his marriage. The married sugar baby usually has a different reason for engaging in such tryst. She still loves her husband, but is looking for fun on the side, or her extramarital arrangement allows her to help her family out financially. In a recent survey conducted by Harvard, over 60% of its alumni claimed to have had an extramarital affair at least once or have considered cheating while married. It seems married dating and discreet affairs are much more popular than we all think. If you are going to consider married dating in Arab, Alabama, United States, we suggest using SeekingArrangement.com for a number of reasons. On SA, members are able to have extramarital affairs without any strings attached. The last thing a person wants in a married dating scenario is to have one or more parties fall in love. An arrangement by its nature allows both parties to specify exactly what they look for in an extramarital affair, while avoiding the things they do not want – clinginess, attachment, or dependencies. Married dating is usually conducted as discreet affairs or secret affairs. Being discreet or secretive is what makes cheating all the more exciting, and one of the main reasons why many people engage in extramarital affairs or extramarital tryst. In addition, SeekingArrangement provides many privacy and discreet features to allow cheaters the ability to keep their affairs secret. ;

Looking for a casual encounter in Arab, Alabama, United States? SeekingArrangement.com provides the largest selection of wealthy and gorgeous people in Arab, Alabama, United States looking for casual relationships, casual dating, casual arrangements, casual encounters, discreet encounters, casual sex, casual friendship, or casual affairs. Unlike other casual encounters website such as Craigslist.com, Craigslist.org, OnlineBootyCall.com, or CasualEncounters.com, SeekingArrangement.com is the only casual dating website to exclusively cater to wealthy and gorgeous people looking for a flirtatious fling. Casual encounters or casual sex, refers to certain types of sexual activity outside the context of a romantic relationship. The term is not always used consistently: some use it to refer to any extramarital sex, some use it to refer to sex in a casual relationship, whereas others reserve its use for one-time encounters (such as one night stands), promiscuity, or to refer to sex in the absence of emotional attachment or love (e.g., NSA or no strings attached relationship). Another term for casual encounters is a hookup which refers to casual sex activity. An extended hookup sometimes refers to prolonged instances of casual sex interactions. This is a situation in which the involved parties occasionally meet for casual sex multiple times, always without a long-term commitment. This is a casual relationship specifically for sex and without any emotional aspect. Other colloquial terms used to describe two people engaged in a relationship in which there is no emotional but purely sexual involvement are fuck buddies, one night stands, one night love, friends with benefits, and booty call. The reason so many people in Arab, Alabama, United States seek casual encounters vary from individual to individual. But SeekingArrangement.com is the best dating website for those wanting casual affairs and discreet encounters. Those seeking casual dating typically need extra excitement in their life. Originally, a one-night stand referred to a single night theatre performance, usually by a guest group on tour. Today, however, the term is more commonly understood as a single sexual encounter or casual encounter between individuals, where neither individual has any immediate intention or expectation of establishing a long-term sexual or romantic relationship. One night stands are commonly frowned upon in society because they have potential to ruin a person's reputation, it having the same negativity as adultery or fornication. Individuals participating in a one-night stand typically have not known each other long and have had minimal time to get to know each other before engaging in sexual activity. A one-night sexual encounter is not necessarily always a one-night stand; the crucial distinction is the expectation or intention that the relationship will not necessarily be extended beyond the initial sexual encounter. A one-night stand is differentiated from prostitution, as it takes place without direct payment of money and from a casual relationship, which may not initially involve sex and may continue long-term. A one-night stand can be thought of as an irregular and unplanned sexual encounter between individuals. The participants will usually have little or no contact with one another aside from sex. Thus it is possible to have multiple one-night stands with the same person, provided that there is no regularity to the encounters or planning involved in the casual encounters. However, where the people involved have a regular sexual relationship without romantic involvement, this is generally considered a casual encounter or casual relationship (also referred to using terms such as "no strings attached" or "friends with benefits" or a "fuck buddy"), and is generally considered distinct from the one-night stand phenomenon. ;

On SeekingArrangement.com, you will see the field “Desired Allowance” or “My Budget”. What is an allowance? Well, let’s start first by defining what an allowance is not. An allowance is not money in exchange for sex. That would be prostitution and is strictly forbidden on our website. An allowance is a term coined up by us to mirror the allowance a parent gives to their child or children. Since we use the terminology of a sugar daddy and a sugar baby, the term allowance ended up being the perfect phrase suggesting the caring relationship between a “daddy” and a “baby”. The sugar daddy budget and the sugar baby allowance has always been a matter for heated discussion and debate. But the budget or the allowance isn’t a cash payment. Rather it’s the disposable income the sugar daddy has, and that he is willing to spend each month on his sugar lifestyle, i.e., going out on dates, transportation, or helping his sugar baby with her credit card bills, college tuition, utility bills, car loans, rent, etc. While there have been many successful arrangements forged on SeekingArrangement.com, we have also been told many horror stories of fake sugar daddies who promises his sugar babies the world, only to never be heard of again once he gets what he wants. So for the sugar babies who are expecting a rent free arrangement, or having her bills paid on time monthly, its important to work on your relationship with a sugar daddy first. A real sugar daddy who is a gentleman will not ask for sex on the first date, and if he does, he’s probably a John, not a sugar daddy. However, that said, it’s also important to note that many sugar babies aren’t really genuine sugar babies looking to find sugar relationships. The real sugar daddy is a gentleman who understands that intimacy comes after building trust, respect and mutual chemistry. The real sugar daddy has a real budget, i.e., real disposable income he can spend each month to pamper his sugar baby. For those sugar babies out there, do be honest about what you are looking for. If you want some tuition assistance or someone to provide a scholarship for your college, say so, so the right college sponsor with the right budget can offer you an allowance for your college or provide you with a scholarship to complete your degree. If you want to have your rent paid, or to live rent free, then say you want a sponsor for your rent, or a benefactor who will pay your rent, then say so. The more straightforward about what you want, then the more likely you are to meet the sugar daddy who will give you what you desire. But the most important rule is to build friendship and trust first, and do not sleep with the potential sugar daddy on the first date or even on the second date. In fact, don’t even start a sexual relationship with a potential sugar daddy until he actually becomes a sugar daddy, meaning either pay two semesters of your tuition, signs an agreement to provide scholarship, or sign his name for a 6 months lease on your apartment. Similarly, we ask sugar daddies never to send money to any potential sugar baby who asks for money up front. ;